References

Allison, Paul D. 2009. Fixed Effects Regression Models. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Allport, Gordon W. 1937. Personality: A Psychological Interpretation. New York: Henry Holt.

———. 1962. “The General and the Unique in Psychological Science.” Journal of Personality 30 (3): 405–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1962.tb02313.x.

Anderson, Norman H. 2001. Empirical Direction in Design and Analysis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Anderson, Virgil E., and Robert A. McLean. 1974. Design of Experiments: A Realistic Approach. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Arppe, Antti, Gaëtanelle Gilquin, Dylan Glynn, Martin Hilpert, and Arne Zeschel. 2010. “Cognitive Corpus Linguistics: Five Points of Debate on Current Theory and Methodology.” Corpora 5 (1): 1–27. https://doi.org/10.3366/E1749503210000341.

Baayen, R. Harald. 2008. Analyzing Linguistic Data: A Practical Introduction to Statistics Using R. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Baayen, R. Harald, and Antti Arppe. 2011. “Statistical Classification and Principles of Human Learning.” In Proceedings of Quantitative Investigations in Theoretical Linguistics 4 (QITL-4), 8–11. Berlin: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858558.

Baayen, R. Harald, Douglas J. Davidson, and Douglas M. Bates. 2008. “Mixed-Effects Modeling with Crossed Random Effects for Subjects and Items.” Journal of Memory and Language 59 (4): 390–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.12.005.

Bancroft, Theodore A. 1964. “Analysis and Inference for Incompletely Specified Models Involving the Use of Preliminary Test(s) of Significance.” Biometrics 20 (3): 427–42. https://doi.org/10.2307/2528486.

Barr, Dale J. 2018. “Generalizing over Encounters: Statistical and Theoretical Considerations.” In The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics, edited by Shirley-Ann Rueschemeyer and M. Gareth Gaskell, 917–29. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198786825.013.39.

Barr, Dale J., Roger Levy, Christoph Scheepers, and Harry J. Tily. 2013. “Random Effects Structure for Confirmatory Hypothesis Testing: Keep It Maximal.” Journal of Memory and Language 68 (3): 255–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001.

Begg, Melissa D., and Michael K. Parides. 2003. “Separation of Individual-Level and Cluster-Level Covariate Effects in Regression Analysis of Correlated Data.” Statistics in Medicine, no. 22: 2591–2602. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.1524.

Bell, Andrew, Malcolm Fairbrother, and Kelvyn Jones. 2019. “Fixed and Random Effects Models: Making an Informed Choice.” Quality & Quantity 53: 1051–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-018-0802-x.

Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. 1999. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education.

Bickerton, Derek. 1971. “Inherent Variability and Variable Rules.” Foundations of Language 7 (4): 457–92. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25000558.

Bingenheimer, Jeffrey B., and Stephen W. Raudenbush. 2004. “Statistical and Substantive Inferences in Public Health: Issues in the Application of Multilevel Models.” Annual Review of Public Health, no. 25: 53–77. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.050503.153925.

Bottai, Matteo. 2014. “Lessons in Biostatistics: Inferences and Conjectures about Average and Conditional Treatment Effects in Randomized Trials and Observational Studies.” Journal of Internal Medicine 276 (3): 229–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12283.

Brown, Constance, and Frederick Mosteller. 1991. “Variance Components.” In Fundamentals of Exploratory Analysis of Variance, edited by David C. Hoaglin, Frederick Mosteller, and John W. Tukey, 193–244. New York: Wiley.

Cameron, A. Colin, and Pravin K. Trivedi. 2005. Microeconometrics: Methods and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Carver, Ronald P. 1972. “Evidence for the Invalidity of the Miller-Coleman Readability Scale.” Journal of Reading Behavior 4 (3): 42–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/10862967109546999.

———. 1978. “Sense and Nonsense about Generalizing to a Language Population.” Journal of Reading Behavior 10 (1): 25–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/10862967809547252.

Castellano, Katherine E., Sophia Rabe-Hesketh, and Anders Skrondal. 2014. “Composition, Context, and Endogeneity in School and Teacher Comparisons.” Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics 39 (5): 333–67. https://doi.org/10.3102/1076998614547576.

Cedergren, Henrietta J., and David Sankoff. 1974. “Variable Rules: Performance as a Statistical Reflection of Competence.” Language 50 (2): 333–55. https://doi.org/10.2307/412441.

Clark, Herbert H. 1973. “The Language-as-Fixed-Effect Fallacy: A Critique of Language Statistics in Psychological Research.” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 12 (4): 335–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(73)80014-3.

Cobb, George W. 1997. Introduction to Design and Analysis of Experiments. New York: Wiley.

———. 1998. Introduction to Design and Analysis of Experiments. New York: Springer.

Cochran, William G. 1951. “Testing a Linear Relation Among Variances.” Biometrics 7 (1): 17–32. https://doi.org/10.2307/3001601.

———. 1977. Sampling Techniques. New York: Wiley.

———. 1983. Planning and Analysis of Observational Studies. New York: Wiley.

Coleman, Edmund B. 1964. “Generalizing to a Language Population.” Psychological Reports 14 (1): 219–26. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1964.14.1.219.

———. 1979. “Generalization Effects Vs Random Effects: Is σ_TL² a Source of Type 1 or Type 2 Error?” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 18 (2): 243–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(79)90145-2.

Cornfield, Jerome, and John W. Tukey. 1977. “Average Values of Mean Squares in Factorials.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society A 50 (1): 48–76. https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177728067.

Cox, David R. 1958. Planning of Experiments. New York: Wiley.

Deming, W. Edwards. 1950. Some Theory of Sampling. New York: Wiley.

———. 1975. “On Probability as a Basis for Action.” The American Statistician 29 (4): 146–52. https://doi.org/10.2307/2683482.

Diez Roux, Ana M. 2002. “A Glossary for Multilevel Analysis.” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 56: 558–94. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.56.8.588.

Divjak, Dagmar, and Antti Arppe. 2013. “Extracting Prototypes from Exemplars: What Can Corpus Data Tell Us about Concept Representation?” Cognitive Linguistics 24 (2): 221–74. https://doi.org/10.1515/cog-2013-0008.

Divjak, Dagmar, Ewa Dąbrowska, and Antti Arppe. 2016. “Machine Meets Man: Evaluating the Psychological Reality of Corpus-Based Probabilistic Models.” Cognitive Linguistics 27 (1): 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1515/cog-2015-0101.

Draper, David, James S. Hodges, Colin L. Mallows, and Daryl Pregibon. 1993. “Exchangeability and Data Analysis.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society A 156 (1): 9–37. https://doi.org/10.2307/2982858.

Duncan, Craig, Kelvyn Jones, and Graham Moon. 1998. “Context, Composition and Heterogeneity: Using Multilevel Models in Health Research.” Social Science & Medicine 1 (46): 97–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(97)00148-2.

Ebbes, Peter, Ulf Böckenholt, and Michel Wedel. 2004. “Regressor and Random-Effects Dependencies in Multilevel Models.” Statistica Neerlandica 58 (2): 161–78. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0039-0402.2003.00254.x.

Eisenhart, Chruchill. 1947. “The Asumptions Underlying the Analysis of Variance.” Biometrics 3 (1): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.2307/3001534.

Fisher, Ronald A. 1956. Statistical Methods and Scientific Inference. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.

Forrest, Jon. 2015. “Community Rules and Speaker Behavior: Individual Adherence to Group Constraints on (ING).” Language Variation and Change 27 (3): 377–406. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954394515000137.

———. 2017. “The Dynamic Interaction Between Lexical and Contextual Frequency: A Case Study of (ING).” Language Variation and Change 29 (2): 129–56. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954394517000072.

Forster, Kenneth I. 2008. “What Is F2 Good For?” Journal of Memory and Language 59 (4): 389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2008.08.002.

Forster, Kenneth I., and Rod G. Dickinson. 1976. “More on the Language-as-Fixed-Effect Fallacy: Monte Carlo Estimates of Error Rates for F1, F2, F’, and Min F’.” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 15 (2): 135–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-5371(76)90014-1.

Gelman, Andrew. 2005. “Analysis of Variance: Why It Is More Important Than Ever.” The Annals of Statistics 33 (1): 1–53. https://doi.org/10.1214/009053604000001048.

Gigerenzer, Gerd, and Ulrich Hoffrage. 1995. “How to Improve Bayesian Reasoning Without Instruction: Frequency Formats.” Psychological Review 102 (4): 684–704. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.102.4.684.

Gitlow, Howard, Shelly Gitlow, Alan Oppenheim, and Rosa Oppenheim. 1989. Tools and Methods for the Improvement of Quality. Boston: Irwin.

Grissom, Robert J., and John J. Kim. 2012. Effect Sizes for Research: Univariate and Multivariate Applications. New York: Routledge.

Guy, Gregory R. 1980. “Variation in the Group and the Individual: The Case of Final Stop Deletion.” In Locating Language in Time and Space, edited by William Labov, 1–36. New York: Academic Press.

———. 1988. “Advanced VARBRUL Analysis.” In Linguistic Change and Contact: NWAV-XVI, edited by Kathleen Ferrara, Becky Brown, Keith Walters, and John Baugh, 124–36. Austion, TX: University of Texas, Department of Linguistics.

———. 1991. “Explanation in Variable Phonology: An Exponential Model of Morphological Constraints.” Language Variation and Change 3 (1): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954394500000429.

———. 2018. “LVC Guidelines for Reporting Quantitative Results.” http://gregoryrguy.com/wp-content/uploads/Guy-2018-Guidelines-for-reporting-quantitative-results-LVC-Nov-18-2018.pdf.

Guy, Gregory R., and Sally Boyd. 1990. “The Development of a Morphological Class.” Language Variation and Change 2 (1): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954394500000235.

Hahn, Gerald J., and William Q. Meeker. 1993. “Assumptions for Statistical Inference.” The American Statistician 47 (1): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.2307/2684774.

Hausman, Jerry A. 1978. “Specification Tests in Econometrics.” Econometrica 46: 1251–71. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913827.

Hinkelmann, Klaus, and Oscar Kempthorne. 2008. Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume 1: Introduction to Experimental Design. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Holt, Robert A. 1962. “Individuality and Generalization in the Psychology of Personality.” Journal of Personality 30 (3): 377–404. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1962.tb02312.x.

Johnstone, David J. 1989. “On the Necessity for Random Sampling.” The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 40 (4): 443–57. https://www.jstor.org/stable/687735.

Kay, Matthew, Tara Kola, Jessica R. Hullman, and Sean A. Munson. 2016. “When (Ish) Is My Bus? User-Centered Visualizations of Uncertainty in Everyday, Mobile Predictive Systems.” In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 5092–5103. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858558.

KeithSmith, J. E. 1976. “Discussion of Wike and Church’s Comments.” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 15 (3): 262–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-5371(76)90024-4.

Keppel, Geoffrey, and Thomas D. Wickens. 2004. Design and Analysis: A Researcher’s Handbook. London: Pearson.

Kish, Leslie. 1987. Statistical Design for Research. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Klavan, Jane, and Dagmar Divjak. 2016. “The Cognitive Plausibility of Statistical Classification Models: Comparing Textual and Behavioral Evidence.” Folia Linguistica 50 (2): 355–48. https://doi.org/10.1515/flin-2016-0014.

Labov, William. 1969. “Contraction, Deletion, and Inherent Variability of the English Copula.” Language 45 (4): 715–62. https://doi.org/10.2307/412333.

Labov, William, Paul Cohen, Clarence Robins, and John Lewis. 1968. A Study of the Non-Standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers in New York City. New York: Columbia University.

Lawson, John. 2015. Design and Analysis of Experiments with r. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Lindley, Deniis V., and Melvin R. Novick. 1981. “The Role of Exchangeability in Inference.” The Annals of Statistics 9 (1): 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1214/aos/1176345331.

Locker, Lawrence, Lesa Hoffman, and James A. Boviard. 2007. “On the Use of Multilevel Modeling as an Alternative to Items Analysis in Psycholinguistic Research.” Behavior Research Methods 39: 723–30. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192962.

Lohr, Sharon L. 2022. Sampling: Design and Analysis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Lorch, Robert F., and Jerome L. Myers. 1990. “Regression Analyses of Repeated Measures Data in Cognitive Research.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 16 (1): 149–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.16.1.149.

Lorenzen, Thomas J., and Virgil L. Anderson. 1993. Design of Experiments: A No-Name Approach. New York: Dekker.

MacKay, R. Jock, and R. Wayne Oldford. 2000. “Scientific Method, Statistical Method and the Speed of Light.” Statistical Science 15 (3): 254–78. https://doi.org/10.1214/ss/1009212817.

Matuschek, Hannes, Reinhold Kliegl, Shravan Vasishth, R. Harald Baayen, and Douglas Bates. 2017. “Balancing Type i Error and Power in Linear Mixed Models.” Journal of Memory and Language 94: 305–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2017.01.001.

Maxwell, Scott E., Harold D. Delaney, and Ken Kelley. 2018. Designing Experiments and Analyzing Data: A Model Comparison Perspective. New York: Routledge.

McLean, Robert A., William L. Sanders, and Walter W. Stroup. 1991. “A Unified Approach to Mixed Linear Models.” The American Statistician 45 (1): 54–64. https://doi.org/10.2307/2685241.

Miller, Gerald R., and Edmund B. Coleman. 1972. “The Measurement of Reading Speed and the Obligation to Generalize to a Population of Reading Materials.” Journal of Reading Behavior 4 (3): 48–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/10862967109547000.

Mook, Douglas G. 1982. Psychological Research: Strategy and Tactics. New York: Harper; Row.

———. 1983. “In Defense of External Invalidity.” American Psychologist 38 (4): 379–87. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.38.4.379.

Mundlak, Yair. 1978. “On the Pooling of Time Series and Cross Section Data.” Econometrica 46 (1): 69–85. https://doi.org/1913646.

Nelder, John A. 1956. “A Reformulation of Linear Models.” The Annals of Mathematical Statistics 27 (4): 907–49. https://doi.org/10.2307/2344517.

Neuhaus, J. M., and J. D. Kalbfleisch. 1998. “Between- and Within-Cluster Covariate Effects in the Analysis of Clustered Data.” Biometrics, no. 54: 638–45.

Palta, Mari, and Chris Seplaki. 2003. “Causes, Problems and Benefits of Different Between and Within Effects in the Analysis of Clustered Data.” Health Services and Outcomes Research Methodology, no. 3: 177–93. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025893627073.

Paolillo, John C. 2013. “Individual Effects in Variation Analysis: Model, Software, and Research Design.” Language Variation and Change 25 (1): 89–118. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954394512000270.

Quené, Hugo, and Huub van den Bergh. 2004. “On Multi-Level Modeling of Data from Repeated-Measures Designs: A Tutorial.” Speech Communication 43 (1-2): 103–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.specom.2004.02.004.

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman.

Raaijmakers, Jeroen G. W. 2003. “A Further Look at the ‘Language-as-Fixed-Effect Fallacy’.” Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology / Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Expérimentale 57 (3): 141–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087421.

Raaijmakers, Jeroen G. W., Joseph M. C. Schrijnemakers, and Frans Gremmen. 1999. “How to Deal with "The Language-as-Fixed-Effect Fallacy": Common Misconceptions and Alternative Solutions.” Journal of Memory and Language 41 (3): 416–26. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.1999.2650.

Rabe-Hesketh, Sophia, and Anders Skrondal. 2021. Multilevel and Longitudinal Modeling Using Stata. College Station, TX: Stata Press.

Raudenbush, Stephen W., and Anthony S. Bryk. 2002. Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Runyan, William M. 1982. Life Histories and Psychobiography: Explorations in Theory and Method. New York: Oxford University Press.

Sankoff, David. 1978. “Probability and Linguistic Variation.” Synthese 37 (2): 217–38. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20115257.

Sankoff, David, and William Labov. 1979. “On the Uses of Variable Rules.” Language in Society 8 (2): 189–222. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404500007430.

Sankoff, Gillian. 1974. “A Quantitative Paradigm for the Study of Communicative Competence.” In Explorations in the Ethnography of Speaking, edited by Richard Baumann and Joel Sherzer, 18–49. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Scatterthwaite, F. E. 1946. “An Approximate Distribution of Estimates of Variance Components.” Biometrics Bulletin 2 (6): 110–14. https://doi.org/10.2307/3002019.

Schnuck, Reinhard, and Francisco Perales. 2017. “Within- and Between-Cluster Effects in Generalized Linear Mixed Models: A Discussion of Approaches and the Xthybrid Command.” The Stata Journal 17 (1): 89–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X1701700106.

Searle, Shayle R., George Casella, and Charles E. McCulloch. 1992. Variance Components. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Sidman, Murray. 1960. Tactics of Scientific Research: Evaluating Experimental Data in Psychology. New York: Basic Books.

Sjölander, Arvid, Paul Lichtenstein, Henrik Larsson, and Yudi Pawitan. 2013. “Between–Within Models for Survival Analysis.” Statistics in Medicine 18 (32): 3067–76. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.5767.

Spiegelhalter, David. 2019. The Art of Statistics: Learning from Data. London: Penguin.

Stroup, Walter W. 2013. Generalized Linear Mixed Models: Modern Concepts, Methods and Applications. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Thomae, Hans. 1999. “The Nomothetic-Idiographic Issue: Some Roots and Recent Trends.” International Journal of Group Tensions 20 (1/2): 187–215. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021891506378.

Underwood, A. J. 1997. Experiments in Ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wallis, W. Allen, and Harry V. Roberts. 1956. Statistics: A New Approach. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.

Welham, S. J., S. J. Gezan, S. J. Clark, and A Mead. 2014. Statistical Methods in Biology: Design and Analysis of Experiments and Regression. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Wells, John C. 2008. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Harlow: Pearson Longman.

Wickens, Thomas D., and Geoffrey Keppel. 1983. “On the Choice of Design and of Test Statistic in the Analysis of Experiments with Sampled Materials.” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (3): 296–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(83)90208-6.

Wike, Edward L., and James D. Church. 1976. “Comments on Clark’s "The Language-as-Fixed-Effect Fallacy".” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 15 (3): 249–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-5371(76)90023-2.

Wilk, MArtin B., and Oscar Kempthorne. 1955. “Fixed, Mixed, and Random Models.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 50 (272): 1144–67. https://doi.org/10.2307/2281212.

Windelband, Wilhelm. 1894. “Geschichte Und Naturwissenschaft.” In Rektoratsreden Der Universität Strassburg, 193–208. Strassburg: Heitz und Mündel. https://doi.org/10.11588/diglit.20767.

Wooldridge, Jeffrey M. 2010. Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.