Using R and RStudio

Basic workflow and good practices

In general

Use R with RStudio
Create an RStudio project for each data analysis project
Keep an analysis notebook, which includes R code + output
Organize your project folder into subfolders (data, figures, etc.)
Everything should always be reproducible from code + input data

Project setup

Create an RStudio project

File > New project…
New Directory
New Project
Use an informative directory name
Store it where you will find it

RStudio project organization

Keep data files and analysis notebooks in your project folder
Use subfolders: data, figures
Use here() to refer to file locations

Reproducibility

Your data analysis project should be self-contained, which means that everything that is needed to reproduce the results is stored in the project folder.

RStudio project setup

Go to your project folder
Create two subfolders: data, figures
Download data_disagreement.txt from OSF project
Save in data subfolder

Use analysis notebooks

RMarkdown files combine text, code, and output
Can be exported as html/Word/PDF file
In the analysis notebook:
- Write down what you did and why you did it
- Run analyses
- Look at output (figures, tables,…)

Create an RMarkdown notebook

File > New file > RMarkdown document…
Use default options, click “Create”
Save it in your project folder
Knit it: Click the Knit button

Play around with the RMarkdown file

Compare contents of file with rendered version
Change/add text and knit again
Have a look at the RMarkdown Cheat Sheet
Run code inside of RMarkdown file
Keyboard shortcuts
- Insert code chunk: Ctrl + Alt + I (Mac: Command + Option + I)

Getting data into R

Data and R: Warnings

Importing data into R can be frustrating
Getting them into shape for analysis can be tedious
See R script data_preparation.Rmd for the preparation of the disagreement data

Data preparation: General workflow

Data entry/annotation usually in MS Excel
Store Excel spreadsheet in subfolder data/input_data
Load into R (document this step in code form)
Prepare for analysis
Save in .txt format in subfolder data/analysis_data

Reproducibility

The .txt format ensures that your data can be opened using other software (interoperability).

Data preparation: Simple rules

Lots of work can be avoided by following a few simple rules
Rows and columns
- Columns are variables
- Rows are observations
- Avoid blank rows and blank columns
- The first row gives the name of the variables

Data preparation: Naming conventions

Avoid blank spaces and special symbols (underscore _ is OK)
Do not begin variable names with numbers
R is case-sensitive (“Yes” and “yes” are treated as different)
Code missing values (empty cells) as NA

Errors

A lot can go wrong when reading data into R. Make sure you routinely include error checks into your workflow. Always carefully inspect the data at different stages of processing/analysis.

R basics

R: General advice

Use the tidyverse set of packages
Use ggplot2 for data visualization
Workflow: Document every step using code
Aim: Full reproducibility based on code + data

Using R packages

You need to install a package only once: install.packages()
Packages must be loaded at beginning of R session: library()
Please install and load the following packages: tidyverse, here

install.packages("tidyverse")
install.packages("here")

library(tidyverse)
library(here)

In R, everything is an object

Functions, data tables, etc.
Create an object by assigning something to a new name
Assignment operator: <- (shortcut: Alt + -)
New objects then exist in R’s workspace
Important object types:
- Vector: Sequence of elements (e.g. names, numbers)
- Data frame/tibble: Data tables

In R, you do things using functions

Functions do the work in R (calculation, graphing, etc.)
Have parentheses at the end of their names
We give instructions to a function using its arguments
function(<argument> = <value>)

Working with data tables

read.table() to read in .txt files
here() to specify the directory path (package: here)

d <- read.table(
    file = here("data", "data_disagreement.txt"), 
    sep="\t", 
    header=T, 
    stringsAsFactors = T)

Look at the contents of a data frame: `str()`

str(d)

'data.frame':   353 obs. of  8 variables:
 $ strategy   : Factor w/ 3 levels "direct","indirect",..: 3 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 ...
 $ conv       : Factor w/ 22 levels "A","B","C","D",..: 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ...
 $ speaker    : Factor w/ 44 levels "Adriana","Ah Sa",..: 6 6 27 27 6 27 6 27 6 27 ...
 $ gender     : Factor w/ 2 levels "f","m": 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 ...
 $ group      : Factor w/ 4 levels "hk","int","mc",..: 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ...
 $ social_dist: Factor w/ 2 levels "distance","familiar": 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ...
 $ involved   : Factor w/ 2 levels "no","yes": 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 ...
 $ hk         : Factor w/ 2 levels "no","yes": 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ...

Look at the first rows of a data frame: `head()`

head(d)

   strategy conv speaker gender group social_dist involved hk
1 non_agree    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
2    direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
3    direct    B   Kamal      m   int    distance      yes no
4  indirect    B   Kamal      m   int    distance      yes no
5    direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
6 non_agree    B   Kamal      m   int    distance      yes no

Use `$` to access a column (variable) in the data frame

d$strategy

  [1] non_agree direct    direct    indirect  direct    non_agree direct   
  [8] direct    direct    direct    direct    direct    non_agree direct   
 [15] direct    direct    non_agree direct    non_agree indirect  direct   
 [22] non_agree indirect  indirect  indirect  direct    indirect  indirect 
 [29] non_agree direct    indirect  direct    direct    indirect  direct   
 [36] non_agree direct    indirect  direct    indirect  indirect  indirect 
 [43] non_agree indirect  indirect  non_agree indirect  direct    direct   
 [50] indirect  indirect  direct    direct    direct    direct    non_agree
 [57] direct    direct    direct    indirect  direct    direct    non_agree
 [64] indirect  direct    direct    direct    direct    indirect  indirect 
 [71] non_agree non_agree non_agree indirect  indirect  non_agree direct   
 [78] indirect  non_agree direct    direct    non_agree non_agree direct   
 [85] direct    direct    direct    non_agree non_agree non_agree direct   
 [92] indirect  indirect  direct    non_agree non_agree non_agree direct   
 [99] direct    non_agree direct    direct    indirect  non_agree non_agree
[106] direct    indirect  direct    indirect  non_agree indirect  direct   
[113] direct    direct    direct    indirect  direct    non_agree non_agree
[120] indirect  non_agree non_agree indirect  direct    direct    direct   
[127] direct    non_agree direct    indirect  direct    direct    direct   
[134] indirect  direct    direct    indirect  direct    indirect  direct   
[141] non_agree indirect  indirect  indirect  non_agree direct    non_agree
[148] non_agree direct    indirect  indirect  direct    indirect  non_agree
[155] direct    indirect  non_agree non_agree direct    non_agree indirect 
[162] non_agree non_agree non_agree non_agree non_agree direct    non_agree
[169] non_agree indirect  direct    non_agree non_agree indirect  indirect 
[176] non_agree direct    non_agree direct    non_agree indirect  direct   
[183] direct    indirect  direct    direct    non_agree non_agree indirect 
[190] non_agree indirect  non_agree non_agree non_agree direct    non_agree
[197] indirect  direct    direct    indirect  direct    indirect  indirect 
[204] non_agree indirect  non_agree direct    direct    indirect  indirect 
[211] non_agree non_agree non_agree non_agree non_agree indirect  non_agree
[218] non_agree non_agree direct    indirect  indirect  direct    indirect 
[225] non_agree direct    non_agree indirect  indirect  direct    direct   
[232] non_agree direct    direct    indirect  direct    direct    non_agree
[239] indirect  direct    indirect  indirect  indirect  indirect  indirect 
[246] non_agree direct    non_agree indirect  indirect  direct    indirect 
[253] indirect  non_agree direct    non_agree indirect  non_agree non_agree
[260] direct    non_agree non_agree direct    non_agree direct    direct   
[267] indirect  non_agree indirect  indirect  indirect  direct    direct   
[274] direct    direct    non_agree indirect  non_agree direct    non_agree
[281] direct    non_agree indirect  direct    non_agree direct    indirect 
[288] direct    direct    indirect  indirect  non_agree direct    indirect 
[295] direct    non_agree indirect  non_agree indirect  direct    non_agree
[302] non_agree indirect  non_agree indirect  non_agree non_agree non_agree
[309] direct    non_agree indirect  non_agree direct    indirect  indirect 
[316] non_agree direct    indirect  non_agree direct    non_agree direct   
[323] indirect  indirect  non_agree non_agree indirect  non_agree direct   
[330] non_agree non_agree direct    non_agree direct    indirect  indirect 
[337] non_agree non_agree direct    indirect  indirect  direct    non_agree
[344] non_agree direct    non_agree indirect  indirect  non_agree direct   
[351] indirect  indirect  indirect 
Levels: direct indirect non_agree

Write a data table to file: `write.table()`

write.table(
    d,
    file = here("data", "data_disagreement.txt"), 
    sep="\t")

Saving data tables

To make sure you never overwrite the input data file, keep the input data in the subfolder data/input_data, and the processed data in the subfolder data/analysis_data.

Working with data

The `dplyr` package

Use the dplyr package (part of the tidyverse)
General approach: Piping
- Pipe operator |> or %>%
- Keyboard shortcut: Ctrl + Shift + M
Perform a sequence (pipeline) of operations on data frames

`dplyr` functions

filter() Select a subset of observations
select() Select a subset of variables
arrange() Change order of rows based on a variable
mutate() Add new variables that are functions of data in the table
summarize() Obtain data summaries (mean, count, sd, etc.)
group_by() Form groups

Select a subset of observations: `filter()`

Specify subset based on levels/values of a variable

d |> filter(speaker == "Ari")

    strategy conv speaker gender group social_dist involved hk
1  non_agree    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
2     direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
5     direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
7     direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
9     direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
11    direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
14    direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
16    direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
18    direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
20  indirect    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
21    direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance      yes no
23  indirect    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
24  indirect    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
27  indirect    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
29 non_agree    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
31  indirect    B     Ari      f   int    distance       no no
34  indirect    B     Ari      f   int    distance      yes no
35    direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance      yes no
37    direct    B     Ari      f   int    distance      yes no

Select a subset of variables: `select()`

d |> select(strategy, speaker, social_dist)

     strategy   speaker social_dist
1   non_agree       Ari    distance
2      direct       Ari    distance
3      direct     Kamal    distance
4    indirect     Kamal    distance
5      direct       Ari    distance
6   non_agree     Kamal    distance
7      direct       Ari    distance
8      direct     Kamal    distance
9      direct       Ari    distance
10     direct     Kamal    distance
11     direct       Ari    distance
12     direct     Kamal    distance
13  non_agree     Kamal    distance
14     direct       Ari    distance
15     direct     Kamal    distance
16     direct       Ari    distance
17  non_agree     Kamal    distance
18     direct       Ari    distance
19  non_agree     Kamal    distance
20   indirect       Ari    distance
21     direct       Ari    distance
22  non_agree     Kamal    distance
23   indirect       Ari    distance
24   indirect       Ari    distance
25   indirect     Kamal    distance
26     direct     Kamal    distance
27   indirect       Ari    distance
28   indirect     Kamal    distance
29  non_agree       Ari    distance
30     direct     Kamal    distance
31   indirect       Ari    distance
32     direct     Kamal    distance
33     direct     Kamal    distance
34   indirect       Ari    distance
35     direct       Ari    distance
36  non_agree     Kamal    distance
37     direct       Ari    distance
38   indirect     Ah Sa    familiar
39     direct     Nelle    familiar
40   indirect     Nelle    familiar
41   indirect     Ah Sa    familiar
42   indirect     Ah Sa    familiar
43  non_agree     Nelle    familiar
44   indirect     Nelle    familiar
45   indirect     Ah Sa    familiar
46  non_agree     Nelle    familiar
47   indirect     Ah Sa    familiar
48     direct     Nelle    familiar
49     direct     Ah Sa    familiar
50   indirect     Nelle    familiar
51   indirect     Nelle    familiar
52     direct     Nelle    familiar
53     direct     Nelle    familiar
54     direct     Ah Sa    familiar
55     direct     Ah Sa    familiar
56  non_agree     Ah Sa    familiar
57     direct     Ah Sa    familiar
58     direct     Nelle    familiar
59     direct     Nelle    familiar
60   indirect     Nelle    familiar
61     direct     Nelle    familiar
62     direct     Nelle    familiar
63  non_agree     Ah Sa    familiar
64   indirect     Ah Sa    familiar
65     direct     Nelle    familiar
66     direct     Nelle    familiar
67     direct     Nelle    familiar
68     direct     Nelle    familiar
69   indirect       Sam    distance
70   indirect    Joanna    distance
71  non_agree    Joanna    distance
72  non_agree  Dianthus    distance
73  non_agree     Clara    distance
74   indirect     Clara    distance
75   indirect  Dianthus    distance
76  non_agree     Clara    distance
77     direct     Clara    distance
78   indirect     Clara    distance
79  non_agree     Clara    distance
80     direct  Dianthus    distance
81     direct     Clara    distance
82  non_agree  Dianthus    distance
83  non_agree  Dianthus    distance
84     direct         M    distance
85     direct      Tara    distance
86     direct      Tara    distance
87     direct      Anne    familiar
88  non_agree Annabelle    familiar
89  non_agree Annabelle    familiar
90  non_agree Annabelle    familiar
91     direct Annabelle    familiar
92   indirect Annabelle    familiar
93   indirect      Anne    familiar
94     direct Annabelle    familiar
95  non_agree      Anne    familiar
96  non_agree Annabelle    familiar
97  non_agree      Anne    familiar
98     direct Annabelle    familiar
99     direct Annabelle    familiar
100 non_agree Annabelle    familiar
101    direct     Angie    familiar
102    direct     Angie    familiar
103  indirect      John    familiar
104 non_agree     Angie    familiar
105 non_agree      John    familiar
106    direct     Angie    familiar
107  indirect      John    familiar
108    direct     Angie    familiar
109  indirect       Dee    familiar
110 non_agree       Dee    familiar
111  indirect       Dee    familiar
112    direct       Dee    familiar
113    direct    Louise    familiar
114    direct       Dee    familiar
115    direct    Louise    familiar
116  indirect       Dee    familiar
117    direct    Louise    familiar
118 non_agree    Louise    familiar
119 non_agree    Louise    familiar
120  indirect       Dee    familiar
121 non_agree    Louise    familiar
122 non_agree    Louise    familiar
123  indirect       Dee    familiar
124    direct    Louise    familiar
125    direct       Dee    familiar
126    direct    Louise    familiar
127    direct       Dee    familiar
128 non_agree    Chiara    familiar
129    direct     Jacob    familiar
130  indirect    Chiara    familiar
131    direct     Jacob    familiar
132    direct     Jacob    familiar
133    direct     Jacob    familiar
134  indirect    Chiara    familiar
135    direct    Chiara    familiar
136    direct     Jacob    familiar
137  indirect    Chiara    familiar
138    direct    Chiara    familiar
139  indirect     Jacob    familiar
140    direct    Chiara    familiar
141 non_agree    Chiara    familiar
142  indirect     Diana    familiar
143  indirect     Vicky    familiar
144  indirect     Vicky    familiar
145 non_agree     Diana    familiar
146    direct     Vicky    familiar
147 non_agree     Vicky    familiar
148 non_agree     Diana    familiar
149    direct     Vicky    familiar
150  indirect     Diana    familiar
151  indirect     Vicky    familiar
152    direct     Diana    familiar
153  indirect     Vicky    familiar
154 non_agree     Diana    familiar
155    direct     Diana    familiar
156  indirect       Tom    distance
157 non_agree       Tom    distance
158 non_agree       Tom    distance
159    direct     Kathy    distance
160 non_agree     Kathy    distance
161  indirect       Tom    distance
162 non_agree     Kathy    distance
163 non_agree       Tom    distance
164 non_agree       Tom    distance
165 non_agree       Tom    distance
166 non_agree     Kathy    distance
167    direct       Tim    distance
168 non_agree       Tim    distance
169 non_agree       Tim    distance
170  indirect       Tim    distance
171    direct       Tim    distance
172 non_agree       Tim    distance
173 non_agree       Tim    distance
174  indirect    Oliver    distance
175  indirect      Elsa    familiar
176 non_agree     Floyd    familiar
177    direct      Elsa    familiar
178 non_agree      Elsa    familiar
179    direct     Floyd    familiar
180 non_agree     Floyd    familiar
181  indirect      Elsa    familiar
182    direct     Floyd    familiar
183    direct     Floyd    familiar
184  indirect     Floyd    familiar
185    direct     Floyd    familiar
186    direct     Floyd    familiar
187 non_agree     Floyd    familiar
188 non_agree      Elsa    familiar
189  indirect      Carl    distance
190 non_agree   Jasmine    distance
191  indirect      Carl    distance
192 non_agree   Jasmine    distance
193 non_agree      Carl    distance
194 non_agree   Jasmine    distance
195    direct      Carl    distance
196 non_agree   Jasmine    distance
197  indirect      Carl    distance
198    direct      Brad    distance
199    direct     Chris    distance
200  indirect      Brad    distance
201    direct     Chris    distance
202  indirect      Brad    distance
203  indirect      Brad    distance
204 non_agree     Chris    distance
205  indirect      Brad    distance
206 non_agree     Chris    distance
207    direct     Chris    distance
208    direct      Brad    distance
209  indirect     Chris    distance
210  indirect      Brad    distance
211 non_agree     Chris    distance
212 non_agree      Zara    distance
213 non_agree      Zara    distance
214 non_agree     Tuyen    distance
215 non_agree      Zara    distance
216  indirect      Zara    distance
217 non_agree      Zara    distance
218 non_agree      Zara    distance
219 non_agree      Zara    distance
220    direct     Tuyen    distance
221  indirect      Zara    distance
222  indirect    Sariel    familiar
223    direct    Sariel    familiar
224  indirect   Adriana    familiar
225 non_agree    Sariel    familiar
226    direct    Sariel    familiar
227 non_agree    Sariel    familiar
228  indirect    Sariel    familiar
229  indirect   Adriana    familiar
230    direct   Adriana    familiar
231    direct    Sariel    familiar
232 non_agree    Gimlet    familiar
233    direct     Xenia    familiar
234    direct    Gimlet    familiar
235  indirect     Xenia    familiar
236    direct    Gimlet    familiar
237    direct     Xenia    familiar
238 non_agree     Xenia    familiar
239  indirect    Gimlet    familiar
240    direct     Xenia    familiar
241  indirect    Gimlet    familiar
242  indirect     Xenia    familiar
243  indirect    Gimlet    familiar
244  indirect     Xenia    familiar
245  indirect     Xenia    familiar
246 non_agree     Xenia    familiar
247    direct     Xenia    familiar
248 non_agree    Gimlet    familiar
249  indirect     Xenia    familiar
250  indirect    Gimlet    familiar
251    direct     Xenia    familiar
252  indirect    Gimlet    familiar
253  indirect     Xenia    familiar
254 non_agree    Gimlet    familiar
255    direct     Xenia    familiar
256 non_agree    Gimlet    familiar
257  indirect    Gimlet    familiar
258 non_agree    Gimlet    familiar
259 non_agree     Xenia    familiar
260    direct     Xenia    familiar
261 non_agree    Gimlet    familiar
262 non_agree    Gimlet    familiar
263    direct    Gimlet    familiar
264 non_agree    Gimlet    familiar
265    direct     Xenia    familiar
266    direct    Gimlet    familiar
267  indirect     Xenia    familiar
268 non_agree    Gimlet    familiar
269  indirect    Gimlet    familiar
270  indirect     Xenia    familiar
271  indirect    Gimlet    familiar
272    direct     Xenia    familiar
273    direct    Gimlet    familiar
274    direct     Xenia    familiar
275    direct    Gimlet    familiar
276 non_agree    Gimlet    familiar
277  indirect     Xenia    familiar
278 non_agree    Gimlet    familiar
279    direct     Xenia    familiar
280 non_agree    Gimlet    familiar
281    direct    Gimlet    familiar
282 non_agree     Xenia    familiar
283  indirect     Xenia    familiar
284    direct    Gimlet    familiar
285 non_agree     Xenia    familiar
286    direct    Gimlet    familiar
287  indirect    Gimlet    familiar
288    direct     Xenia    familiar
289    direct    Gimlet    familiar
290  indirect     Xenia    familiar
291  indirect     Xenia    familiar
292 non_agree     Xenia    familiar
293    direct    Gimlet    familiar
294  indirect     Xenia    familiar
295    direct    Gimlet    familiar
296 non_agree     Xenia    familiar
297  indirect     Xenia    familiar
298 non_agree     Xenia    familiar
299  indirect      Dana    familiar
300    direct      Dana    familiar
301 non_agree       Ben    familiar
302 non_agree      Dana    familiar
303  indirect       Ben    familiar
304 non_agree      Dana    familiar
305  indirect      Dana    familiar
306 non_agree       Ben    familiar
307 non_agree      Dana    familiar
308 non_agree       Ben    familiar
309    direct      Dana    familiar
310 non_agree       Ben    familiar
311  indirect      Dana    familiar
312 non_agree      Dana    familiar
313    direct       Ben    familiar
314  indirect      Dana    familiar
315  indirect      Dana    familiar
316 non_agree       Ben    familiar
317    direct       Ben    familiar
318  indirect      Lila    distance
319 non_agree      Lila    distance
320    direct     Elias    distance
321 non_agree      Lila    distance
322    direct     Elias    distance
323  indirect     Elias    distance
324  indirect      Lila    distance
325 non_agree     Elias    distance
326 non_agree     Elias    distance
327  indirect     Elias    distance
328 non_agree      Lila    distance
329    direct    Doreen    distance
330 non_agree    Doreen    distance
331 non_agree    Doreen    distance
332    direct    Doreen    distance
333 non_agree      Lara    distance
334    direct    Doreen    distance
335  indirect       Eva    distance
336  indirect       Eva    distance
337 non_agree   Sigmund    distance
338 non_agree       Eva    distance
339    direct   Sigmund    distance
340  indirect       Eva    distance
341  indirect       Eva    distance
342    direct   Sigmund    distance
343 non_agree   Sigmund    distance
344 non_agree   Sigmund    distance
345    direct       Eva    distance
346 non_agree   Sigmund    distance
347  indirect   Sigmund    distance
348  indirect       Eva    distance
349 non_agree   Sigmund    distance
350    direct   Sigmund    distance
351  indirect       Eva    distance
352  indirect   Sigmund    distance
353  indirect   Sigmund    distance

Reorder rows based on a variable: `arrange()`

d |> arrange(speaker)

     strategy conv   speaker gender group social_dist involved  hk
224  indirect    Q   Adriana      f    mc    familiar       no  no
229  indirect    Q   Adriana      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
230    direct    Q   Adriana      f    mc    familiar       no  no
38   indirect    C     Ah Sa      f    re    familiar       no  no
41   indirect    C     Ah Sa      f    re    familiar       no  no
42   indirect    C     Ah Sa      f    re    familiar       no  no
45   indirect    C     Ah Sa      f    re    familiar       no  no
47   indirect    C     Ah Sa      f    re    familiar       no  no
49     direct    C     Ah Sa      f    re    familiar      yes  no
54     direct    C     Ah Sa      f    re    familiar      yes  no
55     direct    C     Ah Sa      f    re    familiar      yes  no
56  non_agree    C     Ah Sa      f    re    familiar      yes  no
57     direct    C     Ah Sa      f    re    familiar      yes  no
63  non_agree    C     Ah Sa      f    re    familiar       no  no
64   indirect    C     Ah Sa      f    re    familiar       no  no
101    direct    H     Angie      f    hk    familiar       no yes
102    direct    H     Angie      f    hk    familiar       no yes
104 non_agree    H     Angie      f    hk    familiar       no yes
106    direct    H     Angie      f    hk    familiar      yes yes
108    direct    H     Angie      f    hk    familiar       no yes
88  non_agree    G Annabelle      f    re    familiar       no  no
89  non_agree    G Annabelle      f    re    familiar       no  no
90  non_agree    G Annabelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
91     direct    G Annabelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
92   indirect    G Annabelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
94     direct    G Annabelle      f    re    familiar       no  no
96  non_agree    G Annabelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
98     direct    G Annabelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
99     direct    G Annabelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
100 non_agree    G Annabelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
87     direct    G      Anne      f    re    familiar      yes  no
93   indirect    G      Anne      f    re    familiar       no  no
95  non_agree    G      Anne      f    re    familiar       no  no
97  non_agree    G      Anne      f    re    familiar       no  no
1   non_agree    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
2      direct    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
5      direct    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
7      direct    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
9      direct    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
11     direct    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
14     direct    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
16     direct    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
18     direct    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
20   indirect    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
21     direct    B       Ari      f   int    distance      yes  no
23   indirect    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
24   indirect    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
27   indirect    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
29  non_agree    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
31   indirect    B       Ari      f   int    distance       no  no
34   indirect    B       Ari      f   int    distance      yes  no
35     direct    B       Ari      f   int    distance      yes  no
37     direct    B       Ari      f   int    distance      yes  no
301 non_agree    S       Ben      m    hk    familiar       no yes
303  indirect    S       Ben      m    hk    familiar       no yes
306 non_agree    S       Ben      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
308 non_agree    S       Ben      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
310 non_agree    S       Ben      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
313    direct    S       Ben      m    hk    familiar       no yes
316 non_agree    S       Ben      m    hk    familiar       no yes
317    direct    S       Ben      m    hk    familiar       no yes
198    direct    O      Brad      m    re    distance       no  no
200  indirect    O      Brad      m    re    distance       no  no
202  indirect    O      Brad      m    re    distance       no  no
203  indirect    O      Brad      m    re    distance       no  no
205  indirect    O      Brad      m    re    distance       no  no
208    direct    O      Brad      m    re    distance       no  no
210  indirect    O      Brad      m    re    distance       no  no
189  indirect    N      Carl      m    hk    distance       no yes
191  indirect    N      Carl      m    hk    distance       no yes
193 non_agree    N      Carl      m    hk    distance       no yes
195    direct    N      Carl      m    hk    distance       no yes
197  indirect    N      Carl      m    hk    distance      yes yes
128 non_agree    J    Chiara      f    hk    familiar       no yes
130  indirect    J    Chiara      f    hk    familiar       no yes
134  indirect    J    Chiara      f    hk    familiar       no yes
135    direct    J    Chiara      f    hk    familiar       no yes
137  indirect    J    Chiara      f    hk    familiar       no yes
138    direct    J    Chiara      f    hk    familiar      yes yes
140    direct    J    Chiara      f    hk    familiar      yes yes
141 non_agree    J    Chiara      f    hk    familiar      yes yes
199    direct    O     Chris      m    re    distance      yes  no
201    direct    O     Chris      m    re    distance      yes  no
204 non_agree    O     Chris      m    re    distance       no  no
206 non_agree    O     Chris      m    re    distance       no  no
207    direct    O     Chris      m    re    distance       no  no
209  indirect    O     Chris      m    re    distance       no  no
211 non_agree    O     Chris      m    re    distance       no  no
73  non_agree    E     Clara      f    hk    distance      yes yes
74   indirect    E     Clara      f    hk    distance      yes yes
76  non_agree    E     Clara      f    hk    distance      yes yes
77     direct    E     Clara      f    hk    distance      yes yes
78   indirect    E     Clara      f    hk    distance      yes yes
79  non_agree    E     Clara      f    hk    distance      yes yes
81     direct    E     Clara      f    hk    distance      yes yes
299  indirect    S      Dana      f    hk    familiar       no yes
300    direct    S      Dana      f    hk    familiar       no yes
302 non_agree    S      Dana      f    hk    familiar       no yes
304 non_agree    S      Dana      f    hk    familiar       no yes
305  indirect    S      Dana      f    hk    familiar       no yes
307 non_agree    S      Dana      f    hk    familiar       no yes
309    direct    S      Dana      f    hk    familiar       no yes
311  indirect    S      Dana      f    hk    familiar       no yes
312 non_agree    S      Dana      f    hk    familiar       no yes
314  indirect    S      Dana      f    hk    familiar       no yes
315  indirect    S      Dana      f    hk    familiar       no yes
109  indirect    I       Dee      f   int    familiar      yes  no
110 non_agree    I       Dee      f   int    familiar       no  no
111  indirect    I       Dee      f   int    familiar       no  no
112    direct    I       Dee      f   int    familiar       no  no
114    direct    I       Dee      f   int    familiar       no  no
116  indirect    I       Dee      f   int    familiar       no  no
120  indirect    I       Dee      f   int    familiar       no  no
123  indirect    I       Dee      f   int    familiar       no  no
125    direct    I       Dee      f   int    familiar      yes  no
127    direct    I       Dee      f   int    familiar      yes  no
142  indirect    K     Diana      f    mc    familiar       no  no
145 non_agree    K     Diana      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
148 non_agree    K     Diana      f    mc    familiar       no  no
150  indirect    K     Diana      f    mc    familiar       no  no
152    direct    K     Diana      f    mc    familiar       no  no
154 non_agree    K     Diana      f    mc    familiar       no  no
155    direct    K     Diana      f    mc    familiar       no  no
72  non_agree    E  Dianthus      f    hk    distance      yes yes
75   indirect    E  Dianthus      f    hk    distance       no yes
80     direct    E  Dianthus      f    hk    distance       no yes
82  non_agree    E  Dianthus      f    hk    distance       no yes
83  non_agree    E  Dianthus      f    hk    distance       no yes
329    direct    U    Doreen      f   int    distance       no  no
330 non_agree    U    Doreen      f   int    distance       no  no
331 non_agree    U    Doreen      f   int    distance       no  no
332    direct    U    Doreen      f   int    distance      yes  no
334    direct    U    Doreen      f   int    distance      yes  no
320    direct    T     Elias      m    mc    distance       no  no
322    direct    T     Elias      m    mc    distance       no  no
323  indirect    T     Elias      m    mc    distance       no  no
325 non_agree    T     Elias      m    mc    distance       no  no
326 non_agree    T     Elias      m    mc    distance       no  no
327  indirect    T     Elias      m    mc    distance       no  no
175  indirect    A      Elsa      f    mc    familiar       no  no
177    direct    A      Elsa      f    mc    familiar       no  no
178 non_agree    A      Elsa      f    mc    familiar       no  no
181  indirect    A      Elsa      f    mc    familiar       no  no
188 non_agree    A      Elsa      f    mc    familiar       no  no
335  indirect    V       Eva      f    hk    distance       no yes
336  indirect    V       Eva      f    hk    distance       no yes
338 non_agree    V       Eva      f    hk    distance      yes yes
340  indirect    V       Eva      f    hk    distance      yes yes
341  indirect    V       Eva      f    hk    distance      yes yes
345    direct    V       Eva      f    hk    distance      yes yes
348  indirect    V       Eva      f    hk    distance      yes yes
351  indirect    V       Eva      f    hk    distance       no yes
176 non_agree    A     Floyd      m    mc    familiar       no  no
179    direct    A     Floyd      m    mc    familiar       no  no
180 non_agree    A     Floyd      m    mc    familiar       no  no
182    direct    A     Floyd      m    mc    familiar      yes  no
183    direct    A     Floyd      m    mc    familiar      yes  no
184  indirect    A     Floyd      m    mc    familiar      yes  no
185    direct    A     Floyd      m    mc    familiar      yes  no
186    direct    A     Floyd      m    mc    familiar      yes  no
187 non_agree    A     Floyd      m    mc    familiar      yes  no
232 non_agree    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
234    direct    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
236    direct    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
239  indirect    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
241  indirect    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
243  indirect    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
248 non_agree    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
250  indirect    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
252  indirect    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
254 non_agree    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
256 non_agree    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
257  indirect    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
258 non_agree    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
261 non_agree    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
262 non_agree    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
263    direct    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
264 non_agree    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
266    direct    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
268 non_agree    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
269  indirect    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
271  indirect    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
273    direct    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
275    direct    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
276 non_agree    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
278 non_agree    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
280 non_agree    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
281    direct    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
284    direct    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
286    direct    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
287  indirect    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
289    direct    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
293    direct    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar       no yes
295    direct    R    Gimlet      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
129    direct    J     Jacob      m   int    familiar      yes  no
131    direct    J     Jacob      m   int    familiar      yes  no
132    direct    J     Jacob      m   int    familiar      yes  no
133    direct    J     Jacob      m   int    familiar       no  no
136    direct    J     Jacob      m   int    familiar       no  no
139  indirect    J     Jacob      m   int    familiar      yes  no
190 non_agree    N   Jasmine      f   int    distance      yes  no
192 non_agree    N   Jasmine      f   int    distance      yes  no
194 non_agree    N   Jasmine      f   int    distance       no  no
196 non_agree    N   Jasmine      f   int    distance      yes  no
70   indirect    D    Joanna      f    mc    distance       no  no
71  non_agree    D    Joanna      f    mc    distance      yes  no
103  indirect    H      John      m    hk    familiar      yes yes
105 non_agree    H      John      m    hk    familiar       no yes
107  indirect    H      John      m    hk    familiar       no yes
3      direct    B     Kamal      m   int    distance      yes  no
4    indirect    B     Kamal      m   int    distance      yes  no
6   non_agree    B     Kamal      m   int    distance      yes  no
8      direct    B     Kamal      m   int    distance      yes  no
10     direct    B     Kamal      m   int    distance      yes  no
12     direct    B     Kamal      m   int    distance       no  no
13  non_agree    B     Kamal      m   int    distance       no  no
15     direct    B     Kamal      m   int    distance       no  no
17  non_agree    B     Kamal      m   int    distance       no  no
19  non_agree    B     Kamal      m   int    distance       no  no
22  non_agree    B     Kamal      m   int    distance       no  no
25   indirect    B     Kamal      m   int    distance      yes  no
26     direct    B     Kamal      m   int    distance      yes  no
28   indirect    B     Kamal      m   int    distance      yes  no
30     direct    B     Kamal      m   int    distance      yes  no
32     direct    B     Kamal      m   int    distance      yes  no
33     direct    B     Kamal      m   int    distance       no  no
36  non_agree    B     Kamal      m   int    distance       no  no
159    direct    L     Kathy      f    hk    distance      yes yes
160 non_agree    L     Kathy      f    hk    distance      yes yes
162 non_agree    L     Kathy      f    hk    distance      yes yes
166 non_agree    L     Kathy      f    hk    distance       no yes
333 non_agree    U      Lara      f    hk    distance       no yes
318  indirect    T      Lila      f    mc    distance      yes  no
319 non_agree    T      Lila      f    mc    distance      yes  no
321 non_agree    T      Lila      f    mc    distance      yes  no
324  indirect    T      Lila      f    mc    distance       no  no
328 non_agree    T      Lila      f    mc    distance      yes  no
113    direct    I    Louise      f   int    familiar       no  no
115    direct    I    Louise      f   int    familiar      yes  no
117    direct    I    Louise      f   int    familiar       no  no
118 non_agree    I    Louise      f   int    familiar       no  no
119 non_agree    I    Louise      f   int    familiar       no  no
121 non_agree    I    Louise      f   int    familiar       no  no
122 non_agree    I    Louise      f   int    familiar       no  no
124    direct    I    Louise      f   int    familiar      yes  no
126    direct    I    Louise      f   int    familiar      yes  no
84     direct    F         M      m    hk    distance       no yes
39     direct    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
40   indirect    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
43  non_agree    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
44   indirect    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar       no  no
46  non_agree    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar       no  no
48     direct    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar       no  no
50   indirect    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
51   indirect    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
52     direct    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
53     direct    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
58     direct    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
59     direct    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
60   indirect    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar       no  no
61     direct    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
62     direct    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar       no  no
65     direct    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
66     direct    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar      yes  no
67     direct    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar       no  no
68     direct    C     Nelle      f    re    familiar       no  no
174  indirect    M    Oliver      m    re    distance       no  no
69   indirect    D       Sam      m    mc    distance       no  no
222  indirect    Q    Sariel      f    mc    familiar       no  no
223    direct    Q    Sariel      f    mc    familiar       no  no
225 non_agree    Q    Sariel      f    mc    familiar       no  no
226    direct    Q    Sariel      f    mc    familiar       no  no
227 non_agree    Q    Sariel      f    mc    familiar       no  no
228  indirect    Q    Sariel      f    mc    familiar       no  no
231    direct    Q    Sariel      f    mc    familiar       no  no
337 non_agree    V   Sigmund      m    hk    distance       no yes
339    direct    V   Sigmund      m    hk    distance       no yes
342    direct    V   Sigmund      m    hk    distance       no yes
343 non_agree    V   Sigmund      m    hk    distance       no yes
344 non_agree    V   Sigmund      m    hk    distance       no yes
346 non_agree    V   Sigmund      m    hk    distance       no yes
347  indirect    V   Sigmund      m    hk    distance       no yes
349 non_agree    V   Sigmund      m    hk    distance       no yes
350    direct    V   Sigmund      m    hk    distance       no yes
352  indirect    V   Sigmund      m    hk    distance       no yes
353  indirect    V   Sigmund      m    hk    distance       no yes
85     direct    F      Tara      f    hk    distance       no yes
86     direct    F      Tara      f    hk    distance      yes yes
167    direct    M       Tim      m    hk    distance      yes yes
168 non_agree    M       Tim      m    hk    distance      yes yes
169 non_agree    M       Tim      m    hk    distance      yes yes
170  indirect    M       Tim      m    hk    distance      yes yes
171    direct    M       Tim      m    hk    distance      yes yes
172 non_agree    M       Tim      m    hk    distance      yes yes
173 non_agree    M       Tim      m    hk    distance       no yes
156  indirect    L       Tom      m    hk    distance       no yes
157 non_agree    L       Tom      m    hk    distance      yes yes
158 non_agree    L       Tom      m    hk    distance      yes yes
161  indirect    L       Tom      m    hk    distance       no yes
163 non_agree    L       Tom      m    hk    distance       no yes
164 non_agree    L       Tom      m    hk    distance      yes yes
165 non_agree    L       Tom      m    hk    distance      yes yes
214 non_agree    P     Tuyen      f   int    distance      yes  no
220    direct    P     Tuyen      f   int    distance      yes  no
143  indirect    K     Vicky      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
144  indirect    K     Vicky      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
146    direct    K     Vicky      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
147 non_agree    K     Vicky      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
149    direct    K     Vicky      f    mc    familiar       no  no
151  indirect    K     Vicky      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
153  indirect    K     Vicky      f    mc    familiar       no  no
233    direct    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
235  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
237    direct    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
238 non_agree    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
240    direct    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
242  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
244  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
245  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
246 non_agree    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
247    direct    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
249  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
251    direct    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
253  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
255    direct    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
259 non_agree    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
260    direct    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
265    direct    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
267  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
270  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
272    direct    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
274    direct    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
277  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
279    direct    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
282 non_agree    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
283  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
285 non_agree    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
288    direct    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
290  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
291  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
292 non_agree    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
294  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
296 non_agree    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
297  indirect    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar       no  no
298 non_agree    R     Xenia      f    mc    familiar      yes  no
212 non_agree    P      Zara      f   int    distance      yes  no
213 non_agree    P      Zara      f   int    distance       no  no
215 non_agree    P      Zara      f   int    distance       no  no
216  indirect    P      Zara      f   int    distance       no  no
217 non_agree    P      Zara      f   int    distance      yes  no
218 non_agree    P      Zara      f   int    distance       no  no
219 non_agree    P      Zara      f   int    distance      yes  no
221  indirect    P      Zara      f   int    distance      yes  no

Data summary: `group_by()` and `summarize()`

Obtain data summaries (mean, count, sd, etc.)

d |> group_by(speaker) |> 
    summarize(n_tokens = n())

# A tibble: 44 x 2
   speaker   n_tokens
   <fct>        <int>
 1 Adriana          3
 2 Ah Sa           12
 3 Angie            5
 4 Annabelle       10
 5 Anne             4
 6 Ari             19
 7 Ben              8
 8 Brad             7
 9 Carl             5
10 Chiara           8
# ... with 34 more rows

`dplyr` functions: Longer pipes

Token counts by speaker: group_by() and summmarize()

d |> group_by(speaker) |> 
    summarize(n_tokens = n())

# A tibble: 44 x 2
   speaker   n_tokens
   <fct>        <int>
 1 Adriana          3
 2 Ah Sa           12
 3 Angie            5
 4 Annabelle       10
 5 Anne             4
 6 Ari             19
 7 Ben              8
 8 Brad             7
 9 Carl             5
10 Chiara           8
# ... with 34 more rows

`dplyr` functions: Longer pipes

Sort speakers by token count: arrange()

d |> group_by(speaker) |> 
    summarize(n_tokens = n()) |> 
    arrange(n_tokens)

# A tibble: 44 x 2
   speaker n_tokens
   <fct>      <int>
 1 Lara           1
 2 M              1
 3 Oliver         1
 4 Sam            1
 5 Joanna         2
 6 Tara           2
 7 Tuyen          2
 8 Adriana        3
 9 John           3
10 Anne           4
# ... with 34 more rows

`dplyr` functions: Longer pipes

We want to sort in descending order: desc(...)

d |> group_by(speaker) |> 
    summarize(n_tokens = n()) |> 
    arrange(desc(n_tokens))

# A tibble: 44 x 2
   speaker   n_tokens
   <fct>        <int>
 1 Xenia           34
 2 Gimlet          33
 3 Ari             19
 4 Nelle           19
 5 Kamal           18
 6 Ah Sa           12
 7 Dana            11
 8 Sigmund         11
 9 Annabelle       10
10 Dee             10
# ... with 34 more rows

`dplyr` functions: Longer pipes

Only speakers with 30+ tokens: filter()

d |> group_by(speaker) |> 
    summarize(n_tokens = n()) |> 
    arrange(desc(n_tokens)) |> 
    filter(n_tokens >= 30)

# A tibble: 2 x 2
  speaker n_tokens
  <fct>      <int>
1 Xenia         34
2 Gimlet        33

Data visualization

Data visualization: Resources

Use the ggplot2 package (part of the tidyverse)
Healy 2017
Wickham & Grolemund 2023: Chapter 3 (free online)
Chang 2023 (free online)

ggplot2

The way in which ggplot2 works may seem confusing at first. However, it is a very flexible and powerful tool and has become the de-facto standard for adanced data visualization in R. There is a large community of users, which makes it easy to find help online.

Data visualization: Disagreement data

Obtain distribution of token counts across speakers

d |> group_by(speaker) |> 
    summarize(n_tokens = n())

# A tibble: 44 x 2
   speaker   n_tokens
   <fct>        <int>
 1 Adriana          3
 2 Ah Sa           12
 3 Angie            5
 4 Annabelle       10
 5 Anne             4
 6 Ari             19
 7 Ben              8
 8 Brad             7
 9 Carl             5
10 Chiara           8
# ... with 34 more rows

Data visualization: Disagreement data

Visualize using a dot diagram

d |> group_by(speaker) |> 
    summarize(n_tokens = n()) |> 
    ggplot(aes(x=n_tokens)) +
    geom_dotplot(binwidth = 1)

Saving graphics

Use ggsave() to save graph as PDF
Use here() to refer to subfolder “figures”

ggsave(here("figures", "token_count_by_speaker.pdf"), 
       width = 3, height = 1.5)

Saving graphs: File format

Always save graphs as PDF files, to have publication-quality images. If you need to insert a graph into a PowerPoint (or Word), use the free software IrfanView: (1) Open the PDF using Adobe Acrobat, (2) Zoom in/out to set the resolution, (3) Make a screenshot, (4) Paste it (Ctrl. + V) into IrfanView, (5) cut out the graph (Ctrl. + C), and (6) paste it (Ctrl. + V) into PowerPoint/Word.

Using R and RStudio

In general

Project setup

Create an RStudio project

RStudio project organization

RStudio project setup

Use analysis notebooks

Create an RMarkdown notebook

Play around with the RMarkdown file

Getting data into R

Data and R: Warnings

Data preparation: General workflow

Data preparation: Simple rules

Data preparation: Naming conventions

R basics

R: General advice

Using R packages

In R, everything is an object

In R, you do things using functions

Working with data tables

Working with data tables

Look at the contents of a data frame: str()

Look at the first rows of a data frame: head()

Use $ to access a column (variable) in the data frame

Write a data table to file: write.table()

Working with data

The dplyr package

dplyr functions

Select a subset of observations: filter()

Select a subset of variables: select()

Reorder rows based on a variable: arrange()

Data summary: group_by() and summarize()

dplyr functions: Longer pipes

dplyr functions: Longer pipes

dplyr functions: Longer pipes

dplyr functions: Longer pipes

Data visualization

Data visualization: Resources

Data visualization: Disagreement data

Data visualization: Disagreement data

Saving graphics

Look at the contents of a data frame: `str()`

Look at the first rows of a data frame: `head()`

Use `$` to access a column (variable) in the data frame

Write a data table to file: `write.table()`

The `dplyr` package

`dplyr` functions

Select a subset of observations: `filter()`

Select a subset of variables: `select()`

Reorder rows based on a variable: `arrange()`

Data summary: `group_by()` and `summarize()`

`dplyr` functions: Longer pipes

`dplyr` functions: Longer pipes

`dplyr` functions: Longer pipes

`dplyr` functions: Longer pipes